To understand the essential features of the caste system and its development, it is important to distinguish between jati and varna which together constitute the basis for the caste system. The varnas were brought in India by the conquering tribes of Aryans and initially there were three varnas, the Rig veda did not have any mention of the fourth varna – shudras. If the lineage of the Aryans is stretched to Iranian society the Avesta (sacred book of Zoroastrianism) mentions only three classes of people based on economic functions of society. By the end of the Rig vedic period, the Chaturvarna system presented a definitive hierarchy in the society. Phule, Ambedkar argued that the Purushasukta of 10th Mandala of Rig Veda brought forth the concept of shudras that was absent in Rig vedas. While varna is a Vedic classification of the fourth rank occupational order, the caste (jati) refers to the rank heredity, endogamous and occupational group separated from each other by idea of purity and pollution. The notion of hierarchy and stigma (purity and pollution) was super imposed by post Rigvedic varna system. From around sixth century CE, in the early medieval period, the caste system began to consolidate in most parts of India and is clearly related to the rise of feudalism when a class of intermediaries was created which expropriated the surplus in the form of revenue or share of the produce from the laboring masses. The ideology of rituals, pollution, and purity provided the means of creating a class of semi-slaves for the agricultural economy.
The pervasiveness of the caste system over the sub continent can be related to the uniquely rich natural endowment of the Indian subcontinent for the biotic mode of production extant in ancient times. On the west when the nomadic tribes began settling with agriculture, they had to undergo change in social structure. On the contrary Indian tribes did not undergo social transformation and settled down with the tribal identities intact. These tribal identities were rather castes and jati was originally a term used for a tribe with its own distinct custom. So this caste in the form of tribal identities with some religious development existed in India that was slowly replaced by the varna system brought in by the vanquishing Aryan tribes.
The Dalits beyond the four varna system comprised the vanquished tribes. From the fourth century BCE itself there were references to the untouchables in Patanjali who mentions two types of shudras – the nirashrit and the ashrit. Initially the numbers were restricted but with development of feudalism the numbers increased. For example, the chamars and the rajaks were reduced to untouchables. Tribal groups after being disposed of their land/forest were relegated to Shudras and even some artisan groups were reduced from Shudras to Ati-shudras. The main aim was maximum surplus exploitation and forcing them to a low level of material existence and perpetual servitude. On the contrary, the Brahmins (closely associated with the rule of kingdom) as landowners and revenue collectors from villages held wide authority in social, political, and religious life. The Brahmadeva villages of south-India became the centres of culture and learning. The Brahmins shrewdly combined their control over productive forces and administration and as the active members of the feudal ruling classes emerged as the ideologues of the system. At the same period, the Kshatriya varna concentrated in north west India. In the north the powerful clans like Gujjars, the Hunas and Arya Kshatriyas and their intermediaries consolidated to form the Rajput caste. The word originated from Rajputra- one who controlled a few villages in the early medieval period. The dharma allowed them to live off the land grants and share of revenue that became the permanent feature of feudalism. The Reddys in Andhra Pradesh and the Gowdas emerged as separate caste groups through this process in the feudal period. The process of consolidation of the caste system was completed in the main by the 10th century before the arrival of Mahmud of Ghazni.
The Islamic conquest in the subcontinent took place mainly between 11th and 17th century. During this period, the Sufi mystics of Islam, with their liberal spirituality attracted a multitude of shudras and avarnas to Islam as it stood for an escape from caste tyranny. Although Islam in India had no reformist intention, its spread within the oppressed was a reflection of resistance against caste. Islam attracted untouchables and people at the lower strata of Hindu society who willingly adapted Islam due to its democratic structure and fraternal approach. P. W. Arnold in his book “Spread of Islam in the world” commented “The insults and contempt heaped upon the lower castes of Hindus by their co-religionists, and the impossible obstacle placed in the way of any member of these castes desiring to better his condition, show up in striking contrast the benefits of a religious system, which has no outcasts and give free scope for the indulgence of any ambition.” Even Swami Vivekananda accepted that these conversions did not happen by the power of sword and rather were the response of the lowered castes to the oppressive condition in the Hindu society.
The Muslim rulers introduced an advanced feudal system that systematized land revenue administration, promoted cities which paved the way for backward caste to escape ground level tyranny in the villages. The inclusion of backward castes into Islam kept the upper ones away from it. With time as Muslim rules strengthened itself, many from the forward castes got converted to associate closely with the ruling class. They introduced the notion of hierarchy in Muslim society. Muslim rulers adapted it from a utilitarian outlook to ease administration. Although Islam provided a temporary relief to Dalits it could not impact the caste system, nor could provide better means of sustenance to the poor Dalits. Romila Thapar in her “A History of India” observed, “in spite of its egalitarian philosophy, the influence of Islam did not lead to the disappearance of caste”. The fact that Islam in India succumbed to an accepted caste society reduced the social dynamism of Islam. Later the Muslims got divided into three broad categories –Ashraf, Ajlaf and Arzal. Arzal are Muslims who are untouchables and the other two categories maintain social distance from them. Discrimination on the basis of lineage and birth was also noticed.
Spanning a period from 12th to 17th century the Bhakti movement was a popular opposition to caste. Its origin can be traced back in the south between the 7th and the 10th century. Most of the Bhakti saints were from artisan castes like blacksmiths, carpenters and weavers. A few like Nandan, Tiruppan, Chokhamela and Sant Ravidas were untouchables. In the twelfth century Chakradhar Swami was a forerunner of the Bhakti movement. He established the Mahanubhava sect which preached in Marathi and attracted a large section of people from the oppressed caste including the untouchables like Mahads. He set up an order which is egalitarian and even allowed women to take diksha. The movement raised other backward caste individuals like Ravidas, Chokhamela to the stature of sainthood and they broke caste restrictions allowing Dalit community to become bhakts. They preached human equality, prescribe moksha as the path to salvation and criticized the caste practice. The movement by emphasizing the personal relation of individuals with God transcended the barriers of caste. It struck a major blow to the concept of Brahminical superiority based on the monopoly of knowledge of Vedas. The Varkari Panth, main trend represented by Tukaram, Namdev and others were forthright in their criticism of Brahminical exploitation and articulated the agonizing pain of oppressed castes with deep emotion. Anand Teltumbde observed “most important contribution of the Bhakti movement was this recognition and thereby installing hopes in the dalits”. It has to be noted that the Bhakti movement did not exclusively speak for the dalits or proposed any agenda for the radical change. Through its spiritual idioms it initiated questioning the Hindu social order. In essence it was a religious reformation movement and it emerged after feudalism had consolidated. The growth of commodity production may have loosen the ties within the villages, thus enabling such a movement to emerge. But the economic movement were neither rapid nor widespread enough to bring any major economic or cultural transformation. It only articulated the discrimination of the oppressed castes and expressed their desire for equality.
