The earliest ideological resistance faced by the caste system were from the Shramanas. The Shramanas were wandering spiritual seekers who came from non-Brahmin castes. They lived in forests as a spiritual community (sangha). The autonomous communities were designed on the model of republics with decisions made by assemblies. Caste differences were absent in the sanghas. The Shramanas possessed a radical view opposite to that of Brahminism and they used to propagate these thoughts across the land. Their practice included austerity, meditation, and the production and dissemination of knowledge. Although various streams existed in the Shramana movement, all generally rejected a supreme god Brahma as creator and stood for equality of mankind. Five Shramana schools are identified- the Lokayata or Charvaka school taught by Ajita, the Ajnana school of agnostics led by Sanjayin, the Ajivika school founded by Gosal, the Jain or Nirgrantha school by Mahavir and the Buddhist school by Buddha. Two of these ideologies (Buddhism and Jainism) got institutionalized as religion and gained popularity among the Vaishyas and Shudras. The agrarian economy at that juncture did not permit these two Varnas to pursue expensive rituals based on sacrifice of animals, including cattle wealth. Moreover, the newly formed states (Kosala and Magadh which emerged around 600 BCE) imposed taxes on the lower Varnas. This entire discontentment among Vaishyas and Shudras (who paid taxes and laboured) pushed them towards new thinkers like Buddha and Mahavir. As institutionalised religions, Buddhism and Jainism also spread in south India from the 3rd century BCE and were welcomed by the artisans and traders in town and semi- tribal groups. As Roman trade expanded, the Buddhists and Jains received appreciable donations from the artisans and trade-guilds. At around 200 CE, as the royal patronages went on increasing, Buddhism contended for political influence, maintaining its cover of religion that opposed Chaturvarna system and Brahminical oppression. 200 CE witnessed the first major state formation in Deccan with establishment of Satavahana power. These powers supported the varna system and Brahminism. Simultaneously, they provided economic support to the Buddhist centres in Nagarjunakonda and Kanchi.
Although the philosophical contents of these two religions (Buddhism and Jainism) changed over time, they enormously challenged Brahminism over a period of 1000 years. But the anti-caste motion of these ideologies remained passive. The oppressed Chandalas were not allowed in Buddha’s sanghas and the slaves were not permitted to join sanghas without the permission of their masters. Shudras from the sita lands (land directly farmed by the state with the help of Shudra labour) were not also allowed to be a part of the sanghas. In practice, Buddhism avoided confrontation with the odds. Weber says “early Buddhism did not worship the gods of lower castes or the Dalits but the gods of higher castes”. He even observed that most of Buddha’s disciples who belonged to the sanghas were from high castes and had Brahmin backgrounds. Randoll rightly analysed Buddhism to be a reform movement of the educated religious people (Brahmins), rather than a revolt against Brahminism.
In this scenario when Buddhism and Jainism had been well-accepted by the lower varnas as well as by few monarchies, Brahminism expanded in other sects, the most prominent being Shaivism and Vaishnavism. These models of popular devotion cult gained popularity among the peasants. Sacrificial yagnas became symbolic and the tribal elites were incorporated into the Brahmin varna. The principle of ahimsa was adopted from Buddhism. Tribal rituals (for example- agni rituals) and worship of mother
Goddesses were also adopted. This Brahminical approach formed the background of the absorption of the tribes into the expanding agricultural economy. Thus, Brahminism with Varnashram Dharma played a pivotal role in the agrarian development and surplus generation, in legitimizing the rule, carrying regular and periodic rituals related to cultivation. It ensured the consolidation of the feudal economy which in turn assured its hegemony over Buddhism and Jainism that failed to suit the feudal order. Although Buddhism and Jainism adopted the jati system, their role in economy perished and their ideology remained confined within a limited domain, apart from the life of the exploited people. In the deep south, the first Pallava ruler (575 CE) who was a Jain at the beginning converted to Shaivism. After conversion, Mahenuravarman had the record of killing 8000 Jains. The period from 7th to 8th century CE marked the advent of Adi Shankara and fierce onslaught on Buddhism. By that time, degeneration had infiltrated into the monasteries with rising affluence of monks and enormous donations from kings. At that time, their philosophies had no means to deal with the mundane life of people. Many monasteries maintained labourers to take care of the monks and plough the land. This ideological degeneration encouraged the penultimate blow from Shankara in around 788 CE, first in the ideological sphere and then through immense violence. Destruction of Buddhist viharas, conversion of vihara into temple were followed by physical attacks and killing of monks. During these attacks, there was no resistance from the masses as Buddhism had become just a monastrial movement with its huge endowments from the rich.
On the other side, Brahminism adopted shrewd strategies to include whatever attracted the backward castes towards Buddhism. The most intelligent stroke was appropriating Buddha into an ‘incarnation’ (avatar) of Hindu god Vishnu. It is true to conclude that among the Shramana school, Buddhism and partly Jainism opposed Brahminism to an appreciable extent. But they failed to address the backward caste people as the caste system co-existed in their life span and did not face serious resistance from these schools.
