1st October, 1949 marked the culmination of the aspirations of the oppressed, colonised people striving to break free of the clutches of imperialism, through the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China. A new nation, a new type of state that shone the light of liberation onto the colonised people of the world, pulling the double yoke of imperialism and feudalism, came into existence. After the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, the Chinese revolution of 1949 was another event that sent the chill of death down the spine of imperialists all over the world.
The legacy of the Chinese experience is inextricably linked with the leadership of the great proletarian teacher Comrade Mao Tse-tung. In essence, the Chinese revolution marked an advancement of Marxism-Leninism, particularly in the context of colonies and semi-colonies that constituted the largest chunk of the world. Before one can delve into the stages through which the Chinese revolution gave birth to a new kind of state, it is important to understand the classes and contradictions present in the Chinese society of the 1st half of 20th century.
What is a New Democracy?
China was a semi-colony with different imperialist nations like Britain, Japan, USA, France, Germany, and Russia (Tsarist), holding sway over different parts of its territory. The 1911 revolution in China by the Kuomintang (the Nationalist party) overthrew the Qing dynasty giving rise to a fledgling Republican state with Nanking as the capital. Dr. Sun-Yat Sen was elected as its first President. In 1923, Chiang Kai-Shek assumed power in the Nanking government, his reactionary and collaborationist roles were to gradually unfold.
As is the case with colonies or semi-colonies, China was chiefly an agrarian economy where the feudal mode of production dominated. Under the influence of the imperialist bourgeoisie, a section of the nascent Chinese bourgeoisie went over to their side carving out a new class called the comprador bourgeoisie in Chinese society. Mao identified the feudal lords, imperialist bourgeoisie, and the comprador bourgeoisie as the three main enemies of the Chinese people. In a society that was yet to experience democratisation, it came upon the Communists to become the torch-bearers of a democratic revolution. Since, this was qualitatively different to the Russian situation, as the dual attack of feudalism and imperialism had to be countered, it was termed as the new democratic stage of revolution with agrarian revolution as the axis. To brew a democratic revolution in such a region, a united front had to be created by forming the broadest possible alliance to overthrow the imperialist-landlord-comprador bourgeois nexus. For this strategic unity, Mao identified the following classes as allies of the proletariat:
- Majority of the landless or small peasants, middle peasants, and a small section of the rich peasants
- National bourgeoisie who have to compete with the imperialist bourgeoisie for dominance over the local market
- Petty bourgeoisie
Formation of the Chinese Communist Party
The 1917 Bolshevik revolution was a huge boost to the masses aspiring for revolutionary change around the world. In its aftermath, Communist parties were formed in many of the colonies and semi-colonies like India, China etc. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came into existence in 1921 under the leadership of Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao. It would go on to leave a lasting imprint on the history of world socialism.
Comrade Mao was present on the day the party officially came into being through a secret conference in Shanghai. Within a few months, a provincial committee was established in Hunan that Mao became a member of. Gradually the party spread in different parts of China. By May, 1922, the Hunan committee under the leadership of Mao established more than twenty trade unions comprising the workers of mines, railways, municipalities, printing presses, and mints. In those initial days, there was little penetration within the peasantry.
In 1923, the third Congress of the CCP was held in Canton. Here the historic decision to work within the Kuomintang was taken up with dual membership of Kuomintang and the CCP. Mao worked in Shanghai within the Kuomintang and CCP executive committees. He also started working within the peasant fronts back in Hunan. Through frequent agrarian uprisings, he could see sections of the peasantry developing into a conscious, militant force.
Debates with Chen Duxiu
Attacks on communists under Chiang Kai-Shek had already started, exposing the reactionary nature of the Nanking government. Mao was already active on the peasant front forming many village level unions. Mao’s realisation that peasants would become the main force of the revolution in China led to a rift between Mao and Chen Duxiu within the CCP over the strategy for revolution. Mao emphasised on armed struggle against the landlords while Chen Duxiu was putting the opportunistic line of going into some compromise with the Kuomintang. The latter unfortunately held greater sway over party decisions. When the repression on communists increased, the party suffered huge losses as efforts to strengthen workers and peasants towards a protracted people’s war was neglected wholly. In 1927, Chen Duxiu was ousted from the secretaryship of the party central committee. A decision to sever all ties with the Kuomintang was taken when it became established that the Kuomintang had been reduced to a stooge of imperialism. Mao organised a huge peasant revolt in Hunan and Jiangxi provinces that went down in history as the ‘Autumn Harvest Uprising’. This event established agrarian revolution as the axis of the Chinese revolution. The organisation of the Red Army was already underway with recruitment from militant workers, peasants, and rebellious sections of the Kuomintang army. In 1927, the first Soviet was formed at the border of Hunan followed by Soviets being set up in many other provinces. By 1930, the Red Army mastered a very high influence within the people of China. Almost the whole of south Jiangxi came under the control of the central Soviet, strengthening its base.
Towards the end of 1930, Nanking government made an all-out attack on the Red Army starting in Jiangxi with almost 1,00,000 soldiers. Despite being outnumbered, the Red Army successfully resisted the attack by employing guerilla tactics of warfare. A series of such attacks continued against the Red Army that were successfully staved off. On 11th December, 1931, the first Congress of the Soviets was convened. Mao was elected as the Chairman of the Central Soviet government and Zhu De as the commander-in-chief of the Red Army.
The Long March
The woes of the CCP were yet to end- in 1932, Japan attacked Manchuria and Shanghai provinces of China. Thus, the Chinese Soviet government declared war against Japan. The Kuomintang Army had encircled the Red Army from all sides making it impossible for them to directly fight Japan. With imperialism becoming the principal contradiction in this changed scenario, the Chinese Soviet government called for a joint front against Japanese aggression. The Kuomintang did not respond to this call immediately, rather they orchestrated another blow on the Red Army in 1933. The Long March started almost a year after that in October, 1934. The Red Army suffered tremendous hardship in this journey as they faced the worst elements of nature while passing through Fukien, Kiangsi, Kwangtung, Hunan, Kwangsi, Kweichow, Szechuan, Yunnan, Sikang, and Kansu provinces. By October, 1935, the Army reached the northern border of Shaanxi. By the time the march ended in October 1935, only around 8,000 to 9,000 of the original 86,000 marchers had survived. Mao wrote in 1935:
The Long March is a manifesto. It has proclaimed to the world that the Red Army is an army of heroes, while the imperialists and their running dogs, Chiang Kai-shek and his like, are impotent. It has proclaimed their utter failure to encircle, pursue, obstruct and intercept us. The Long March is also a propaganda force. It has announced to some 200 million people in eleven provinces that the road of the Red Army is their only road to liberation.
Japanese Aggression Continues
Just after the Long March ended, Japan devised a new tactic to bring China under their control. The CCP at this time put forward an appeal to the people of China emphasising on the need to form the broadest possible anti-Jap united front. At that time, Soong Ching-ling alias Madame Sun-Yat Sen conducted a signature campaign across China amassing almost 3000 signatures stating the need for national unity. These appeals spread like wildfire making it uncomfortable for the Chiang government to stay away from the unity efforts. The attacks were not limited to the Japanese aggressors and warlords in different parts of China, many imperialist powers like Britain, France etc. also tried hard to strike blows on China. At the international front, only the Soviet Union stood in solidarity with the Chinese struggle. The Japanese forces were centuries ahead of China in terms of military and technological prowess. The people had to suffer terribly due to the continuous attacks by the Japanese forces. On 23rd September, 1937, the joint anti-Japanese front comprising the CCP and Kuomintang aiming towards the liberation of China was declared formally. From 1939 till 1942, almost 10 battles broke out in different parts of China as the Japanese aggression intensified. Heavy losses were suffered by both sides. The Red Army showed exemplary courage in overcoming this crisis coupled with a sharp tactical edge visible through their guerilla manoeuvres. The period between 1941-44 holds special significance as the period of the Rectification Movement- a time of intense inner party struggles led by Mao. By the end of it, the strategy for revolution formulated by Mao emerged victorious within the party, correcting many of the wrong trends. This gave a decisive push to the New Democratic Revolution.
By the second week of August, 1945, the Sino-Japanese war raged towards the ultimate end. The second World War weakened the Japanese imperialist forces terribly. On 9th August, the Red Army of the USSR attacked Manchuria and Korea that had been captured by Japan from six sides (including air and water). On 14th August, 1945, at midnight, the Japanese forces surrendered. After the defeat of Japan, on 10th January, 1946, an all-party meeting was convened under the presidency of Chiang Kai-Shek. An interim all party cabinet was formed to take the following decisions- take forward governance of China, national reconstruction towards peace, convening a national council, drafting of a new constitution for this new council, and formation of a national army that is non-partisan.
Chiang Kai-Shek Again Betrays the Chinese People
By the 1st of April, Chiang Kai-Shek had publicly subverted these joint decisions, vying to establish a dictatorship. Kuomintang under the leadership of Chiang Kai-Shek allowed themselves to become stooges of the newly strengthened US imperialist forces. This led to renewed armed conflicts between the Kuomintang-CCP in China. The Red Army once again suffered heavy losses and a positional retreat. On 19th March, 1947, Yenan, the capital of the Communists, fell at the hands of Chiang Kai-Shek. 1948 onwards, the Red Army went on a tactical offensive against Chiang Kai-Shek. As the area under the Red Army grew by leaps and bounds, Chiang Kai-Shek was left with no other option than to propose a peace accord. Even after partial success of the accord, his forces bided their time and relaunched attack on the Red Army with US assistance, albeit failing miserably. Tremendous factionalism and power struggles erupted within the Kuomintang, weakening it internally.
Formation of the People’s Republic of China
Finally, the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was established on September 21, 1949. The CPPCC held its First Plenary Session from September 21 to 30, 1949, in Beijing. Comrade Mao was elected as its Chairman and Zhou Enlai, the first premier of the People’s Republic of China. The following is an excerpt from the opening address by Mao:
Let the domestic and foreign reactionaries tremble before us! Let them say we are no good at this and no good at that. By our own indomitable efforts we the Chinese people will unswervingly reach our goal.
The heroes of the people who laid down their lives in the People’s War of Liberation and the people’s revolution shall live forever in our memory!
Hail the victory of the People’s War of Liberation and the people’s revolution!
Hail the founding of the People’s Republic of China!
Hail the triumph of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference!
Thus, one-third of the world came under the red banner. A new milestone was established in the path towards world socialism- an event that continues to inspire communist and democratic forces all over the world.
